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Mission type	Flyby (Jupiter&#;&#; Pluto&#;&#; Arrokoth)
Operator	NASA
COSPAR ID	A
SATCAT no.
Website	manicapital.com manicapital.com
Mission duration	Primary mission: &#;years Elapsed: 14&#;years, 8&#;months, 5&#;days
Spacecraft properties
Manufacturer	APL&#;/ SwRI
Launch mass	&#;kg (1,&#;lb)
Dry mass	&#;kg (&#;lb)
Payload mass	&#;kg (67&#;lb)
Dimensions	&#;×&#;&#;×&#;&#;m (&#;×&#;&#;×&#;&#;ft)
Power	watts
Start of mission
Launch date	January 19, , &#;(UTC19)&#;UTC[1]
Rocket	Atlas V () AV[1] + Star 48B 3rd stage
Launch site	Cape CanaveralSLC
Contractor	International Launch Services[2]
Orbital parameters
Eccentricity
Inclination	°
RAAN	°
Argument of periapsis	°
Epoch	January 1, (JD )[3]
Flyby of APL (incidental)
Closest approach	June 13, , &#;UTC
Distance	,&#;km (63,&#;mi)
Flyby of Jupiter (gravity assist)
Closest approach	February 28, , &#;UTC
Distance	2,,&#;km (1,,&#;mi)
Flyby of Pluto
Closest approach	July 14, , &#;UTC
Distance	12,&#;km (7,&#;mi)
Flyby of Arrokoth
Closest approach	January 1, , &#;UTC
Distance	3,&#;km (2,&#;mi)
Instruments Alice Ultraviolet Imaging Spectrometer LORRI Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager SWAP Solar Wind Around Pluto PEPSSI Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation REX Radio Science Experiment Ralph Ralph Telescope SDC Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter
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New Horizons is an interplanetary space probe that was launched as a part of NASA's New Frontiers program.^[4] Engineered by the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) and the Southwest Research Institute (SwRI), with a team led by S. Alan Stern,^[5] the spacecraft was launched in with the primary mission to perform a flyby study of the Pluto system in , and a secondary mission to fly by and study one or more other Kuiper belt objects (KBOs) in the decade to follow, which became a mission to Arrokoth. It is the fifth space probe to achieve the escape velocity needed to leave the Solar System.

On January 19, , New Horizons was launched from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station by an Atlas Vrocket directly into an Earth-and-solar escape trajectory with a speed of about &#;km/s (&#;mi/s; 58,&#;km/h; 36,&#;mph). It was the fastest man-made object ever launched from Earth.^[6][7][8][9] After a brief encounter with asteroid APL, New Horizons proceeded to Jupiter, making its closest approach on February 28, , at a distance of &#;million kilometers (&#;million miles). The Jupiter flyby provided a gravity assist that increased New Horizons' speed; the flyby also enabled a general test of New Horizons' scientific capabilities, returning data about the planet's atmosphere, moons, and magnetosphere.

Most of the post-Jupiter voyage was spent in hibernation mode to preserve on-board systems, except for brief annual checkouts.^[10] On December 6, , New Horizons was brought back online for the Pluto encounter, and instrument check-out began.^[11] On January 15, , the spacecraft began its approach phase to Pluto.

On July 14, , at &#;UTC, it flew 12,&#;km (7,&#;mi) above the surface of Pluto,^[12][13] making it the first spacecraft to explore the dwarf planet.^[14] In August , New Horizons was reported to have traveled at speeds of more than 84,&#;km/h (52,&#;mph).^[15] On October 25, , at &#;UTC, the last of the recorded data from the Pluto flyby was received from New Horizons.^[16] Having completed its flyby of Pluto,^[17]New Horizons then maneuvered for a flyby of Kuiper belt object Arrokoth (then nicknamed Ultima Thule),^[18][19][20] which occurred on January 1, ,^[21][22] when it was &#;AU from the Sun.^[18][19] In August , NASA cited results by Alice on New Horizons to confirm the existence of a "hydrogen wall" at the outer edges of the Solar System. This "wall" was first detected in by the two Voyager spacecraft.^[23][24]

History[edit]

In August , JPL scientist Robert Staehle called Pluto discoverer Clyde Tombaugh, requesting permission to visit his planet. "I told him he was welcome to it," Tombaugh later remembered, "though he's got to go one long, cold trip."^[25] The call eventually led to a series of proposed Pluto missions, leading up to New Horizons.

Stamatios "Tom" Krimigis, head of the Applied Physics Laboratory's space division, one of many entrants in the New Frontiers Program competition, formed the New Horizons team with Alan Stern in December Appointed as the project's principal investigator, Stern was described by Krimigis as "the personification of the Pluto mission".^[26]New Horizons was based largely on Stern's work since Pluto and involved most of the team from Pluto Kuiper Express.^[27] The New Horizons proposal was one of five that were officially submitted to NASA. It was later selected as one of two finalists to be subject to a three-month concept study, in June The other finalist, POSSE (Pluto and Outer Solar System Explorer), was a separate, but similar Pluto mission concept by the University of Colorado Boulder, led by principal investigator Larry W. Esposito, and supported by the JPL, Lockheed Martin and the University of California.^[28] However, the APL, in addition to being supported by Pluto Kuiper Express developers at the Goddard Space Flight Center and Stanford University,^[28] were at an advantage; they had recently developed NEAR Shoemaker for NASA, which had successfully entered orbit around Eros earlier in the year, and would later land on the asteroid to scientific and engineering fanfare.^[29]

In November , New Horizons was officially selected for funding as part of the New Frontiers program.^[30] However, the new NASA Administrator appointed by the Bush Administration, Sean O'Keefe, was not supportive of New Horizons, and effectively cancelled it by not including it in NASA's budget for NASA's Associate Administrator for the Science Mission Directorate Ed Weiler prompted Stern to lobby for the funding of New Horizons in hopes of the mission appearing in the Planetary Science Decadal Survey; a prioritized "wish list", compiled by the United States National Research Council, that reflects the opinions of the scientific community. After an intense campaign to gain support for New Horizons, the Planetary Science Decadal Survey of – was published in the summer of New Horizons topped the list of projects considered the highest priority among the scientific community in the medium-size category; ahead of missions to the Moon, and even Jupiter. Weiler stated that it was a result that "[his] administration was not going to fight".^[26] Funding for the mission was finally secured following the publication of the report, and Stern's team were finally able to start building the spacecraft and its instruments, with a planned launch in January and arrival at Pluto in ^[26]Alice Bowman became Mission Operations Manager(MOM).^[31]

Mission profile[edit]

New Horizons is the first mission in NASA's New Frontiers mission category, larger and more expensive than the Discovery missions but smaller than the Flagship Program. The cost of the mission (including spacecraft and instrument development, launch vehicle, mission operations, data analysis, and education/public outreach) is approximately $&#;million over 15 years (–).^[32] The spacecraft was built primarily by Southwest Research Institute (SwRI) and the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory. The mission's principal investigator is Alan Stern of the Southwest Research Institute (formerly NASA Associate Administrator).

After separation from the launch vehicle, overall control was taken by Mission Operations Center (MOC) at the Applied Physics Laboratory in Howard County, Maryland. The science instruments are operated at Clyde Tombaugh Science Operations Center (T-SOC) in Boulder, Colorado.^[33] Navigation is performed at various contractor facilities, whereas the navigational positional data and related celestial reference frames are provided by the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station through Headquarters NASA and JPL; KinetX is the lead on the New Horizons navigation team and is responsible for planning trajectory adjustments as the spacecraft speeds toward the outer Solar System. Coincidentally the Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station was where the photographic plates were taken for the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon; and the Naval Observatory is itself not far from the Lowell Observatory where Pluto was discovered.

New Horizons was originally planned as a voyage to the only unexplored planet in the Solar&#;System. When the spacecraft was launched, Pluto was still classified as a planet, later to be reclassified as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Some members of the New Horizons team, including Alan Stern, disagree with the IAU definition and still describe Pluto as the ninth planet.^[34] Pluto's satellites Nix and Hydra also have a connection with the spacecraft: the first letters of their names (N and H) are the initials of New Horizons. The moons' discoverers chose these names for this reason, plus Nix and Hydra's relationship to the mythological Pluto.^[35]

In addition to the science equipment, there are several cultural artifacts traveling with the spacecraft. These include a collection of , names stored on a compact disc,^[36] a piece of Scaled Composites's SpaceShipOne,^[37] a "Not Yet Explored" USPS stamp,^[38][39] and a Flag of the United States, along with other mementos.^[40]

About 30 grams (1&#;oz) of Clyde Tombaugh's ashes are aboard the spacecraft, to commemorate his discovery of Pluto in ^[41][42] A Florida-state quarter coin, whose design commemorates human exploration, is included, officially as a trim weight.^[43] One of the science packages (a dust counter) is named after Venetia Burney, who, as a child, suggested the name "Pluto" after its discovery.

Goal[edit]

The goal of the mission is to understand the formation of the Plutonian system, the Kuiper belt, and the transformation of the early Solar System.^[44] The spacecraft collected data on the atmospheres, surfaces, interiors, and environments of Pluto and its moons. It will also study other objects in the Kuiper belt.^[45] "By way of comparison, New Horizons gathered 5, times as much data at Pluto as Mariner did at the Red Planet."^[46]

Some of the questions the mission attempts to answer are: What is Pluto's atmosphere made of and how does it behave? What does its surface look like? Are there large geological structures? How do solar wind particles interact with Pluto's atmosphere?^[47]

Specifically, the mission's science objectives are to:^[48]

• map the surface composition of Pluto and Charon
• characterize the geology and morphology of Pluto and Charon
• characterize the neutral atmosphere of Pluto and its escape rate
• search for an atmosphere around Charon
• map surface temperatures on Pluto and Charon
• search for rings and additional satellites around Pluto
• conduct similar investigations of one or more Kuiper belt objects

Design and construction[edit]

Interactive 3D model of New Horizons

Spacecraft subsystems[edit]

The spacecraft is comparable in size and general shape to a grand piano and has been compared to a piano glued to a cocktail bar-sized satellite dish.^[49] As a point of departure, the team took inspiration from the Ulysses spacecraft,^[50] which also carried a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) and dish on a box-in-box structure through the outer Solar System. Many subsystems and components have flight heritage from APL's CONTOUR spacecraft, which in turn had heritage from APL's TIMED spacecraft.

New Horizons' body forms a triangle, almost &#;m (&#;ft) thick. (The Pioneers have hexagonal bodies, whereas the Voyagers, Galileo, and Cassini–Huygens have decagonal, hollow bodies.) A aluminium alloy tube forms the main structural column, between the launch vehicle adapter ring at the "rear", and the &#;m (6&#;ft 11&#;in) radio dish antenna affixed to the "front" flat side. The titanium fuel tank is in this tube. The RTG attaches with a 4-sided titanium mount resembling a gray pyramid or stepstool. Titanium provides strength and thermal isolation. The rest of the triangle is primarily sandwich panels of thin aluminium facesheet (less than ¹&#;₆₄&#;in or &#;mm) bonded to aluminium honeycomb core. The structure is larger than strictly necessary, with empty space inside. The structure is designed to act as shielding, reducing electronics errors caused by radiation from the RTG. Also, the mass distribution required for a spinning spacecraft demands a wider triangle.

The interior structure is painted black to equalize temperature by radiative heat transfer. Overall, the spacecraft is thoroughly blanketed to retain heat. Unlike the Pioneers and Voyagers, the radio dish is also enclosed in blankets that extend to the body. The heat from the RTG adds warmth to the spacecraft while it is in the outer Solar System. While in the inner Solar System, the spacecraft must prevent overheating, hence electronic activity is limited, power is diverted to shunts with attached radiators, and louvers are opened to radiate excess heat. While the spacecraft is cruising inactively in the cold outer Solar System, the louvers are closed, and the shunt regulator reroutes power to electric heaters.

Propulsion and attitude control[edit]

New Horizons has both spin-stabilized (cruise) and three-axis stabilized (science) modes controlled entirely with hydrazinemonopropellant. Additional post launch delta-v of over &#;m/s (1,&#;km/h; &#;mph) is provided by a 77&#;kg (&#;lb) internal tank. Helium is used as a pressurant, with an elastomeric diaphragm assisting expulsion. The spacecraft's on-orbit mass including fuel is over &#;kg (1,&#;lb) on the Jupiter flyby trajectory, but would have been only &#;kg (&#;lb) for the backup direct flight option to Pluto. Significantly, had the backup option been taken, this would have meant less fuel for later Kuiper belt operations.

There are 16 thrusters on New Horizons: four &#;N (&#;lbf) and twelve &#;N (&#;lbf) plumbed into redundant branches. The larger thrusters are used primarily for trajectory corrections, and the small ones (previously used on Cassini and the Voyager spacecraft) are used primarily for attitude control and spinup/spindown maneuvers. Two star cameras are used to measure the spacecraft attitude. They are mounted on the face of the spacecraft and provide attitude information while in spin-stabilized or 3-axis mode. In between the time of star camera readings, spacecraft orientation is provided by dual redundant miniature inertial measurement units. Each unit contains three solid-state gyroscopes and three accelerometers. Two Adcole Sun sensors provide attitude determination. One detects the angle to the Sun, whereas the other measures spin rate and clocking.

Power[edit]

A cylindrical radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) protrudes in the plane of the triangle from one vertex of the triangle. The RTG provided &#;W of power at launch, and was predicted to drop approximately &#;W every year, decaying to &#;W by the time of its encounter with the Plutonian system in and will decay too far to power the transmitters in the s.^[5] There are no onboard batteries since RTG output is predictable, and load transients are handled by a capacitor bank and fast circuit breakers. As of January , the power output of the RTG is about &#;W.^[51]

The RTG, model "GPHS-RTG", was originally a spare from the Cassini mission. The RTG contains &#;kg (&#;lb) of plutonium oxide pellets.^[27] Each pellet is clad in iridium, then encased in a graphite shell. It was developed by the U.S. Department of Energy at the Materials and Fuels Complex, a part of the Idaho National Laboratory.^[52] The original RTG design called for &#;kg (24&#;lb) of plutonium, but a unit less powerful than the original design goal was produced because of delays at the United States Department of Energy, including security activities, that delayed plutonium production.^[53] The mission parameters and observation sequence had to be modified for the reduced wattage; still, not all instruments can operate simultaneously. The Department of Energy transferred the space battery program from Ohio to Argonne in because of security concerns.

The amount of radioactive plutonium in the RTG is about one-third the amount on board the Cassini–Huygens probe when it launched in The Cassini launch had been protested by multiple organizations, due to the risk of such a large amount of plutonium being released into the atmosphere in case of an accident. The United States Department of Energy estimated the chances of a launch accident that would release radiation into the atmosphere at 1 in , and monitored the launch^[54] because of the inclusion of an RTG on board. It was estimated that a worst-case scenario of total dispersal of on-board plutonium would spread the equivalent radiation of 80% the average annual dosage in North America from background radiation over an area with a radius of &#;km (65&#;mi).^[55]

Flight computer[edit]

The spacecraft carries two computer systems: the Command and Data Handling system and the Guidance and Control processor. Each of the two systems is duplicated for redundancy, for a total of four computers. The processor used for its flight computers is the Mongoose-V, a 12 MHz radiation-hardened version of the MIPS RCPU. Multiple redundant clocks and timing routines are implemented in hardware and software to help prevent faults and downtime. To conserve heat and mass, spacecraft and instrument electronics are housed together in IEMs (integrated electronics modules). There are two redundant IEMs. Including other functions such as instrument and radio electronics, each IEM contains 9&#;boards.^[56] The software of the probe runs on Nucleus RTOS operating system.^[57]

There have been two "safing" events, that sent the spacecraft into safe mode:

• On March 19, , the Command and Data Handling computer experienced an uncorrectable memory error and rebooted itself, causing the spacecraft to go into safe mode. The craft fully recovered within two days, with some data loss on Jupiter's magnetotail. No impact on the subsequent mission was expected.^[58]
• On July 4, , there was a CPU safing event caused by over-assignment of commanded science operations on the craft's approach to Pluto. Fortunately, the craft was able to recover within two days without major impacts on its mission.^[59][60]

Telecommunications and data handling[edit]

New Horizons'antenna, with some test equipment attached.

Communication with the spacecraft is via X band. The craft had a communication rate of 38&#;kbit/s at Jupiter; at Pluto's distance, a rate of approximately 1&#;kbit/s per transmitter was expected. Besides the low data rate, Pluto's distance also causes a latency of about &#;hours (one-way). The 70&#;m (&#;ft) NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) dishes are used to relay commands once it is beyond Jupiter. The spacecraft uses dual modular redundancy transmitters and receivers, and either right- or left-hand circular polarization. The downlink signal is amplified by dual redundant watt traveling-wave tube amplifiers (TWTAs) mounted on the body under the dish. The receivers are new, low-power designs. The system can be controlled to power both TWTAs at the same time, and transmit a dual-polarized downlink signal to the DSN that nearly doubles the downlink rate. DSN tests early in the mission with this dual polarization combining technique were successful, and the capability is now considered operational (when the spacecraft power budget permits both TWTAs to be powered).

In addition to the high-gain antenna, there are two backup low-gain antennas and a medium-gain dish. The high-gain dish has a Cassegrain reflector layout, composite construction, of meter (7&#;ft) diameter providing over 42&#;dBi of gain and a half-power beam width of about a degree. The prime-focus medium-gain antenna, with a meter (1&#;ft) aperture and 10° half-power beam width, is mounted to the back of the high-gain antenna's secondary reflector. The forward low-gain antenna is stacked atop the feed of the medium-gain antenna. The aft low-gain antenna is mounted within the launch adapter at the rear of the spacecraft. This antenna was used only for early mission phases near Earth, just after launch and for emergencies if the spacecraft had lost attitude control.

New Horizons recorded scientific instrument data to its solid-state memory buffer at each encounter, then transmitted the data to Earth. Data storage is done on two low-power solid-state recorders (one primary, one backup) holding up to 8&#;gigabytes each. Because of the extreme distance from Pluto and the Kuiper belt, only one buffer load at those encounters can be saved. This is because New Horizons would require approximately 16 months after leaving the vicinity of Pluto to transmit the buffer load back to Earth.^[61] At Pluto's distance, radio signals from the space probe back to Earth took four hours and 25 minutes to traverse &#;billion km of space.^[62]

Part of the reason for the delay between the gathering of and transmission of data is that all of the New Horizons instrumentation is body-mounted. In order for the cameras to record data, the entire probe must turn, and the one-degree-wide beam of the high-gain antenna was not pointing toward Earth. Previous spacecraft, such as the Voyager program probes, had a rotatable instrumentation platform (a "scan platform") that could take measurements from virtually any angle without losing radio contact with Earth. New Horizons was mechanically simplified to save weight, shorten the schedule, and improve reliability during its year lifetime.

The Voyager 2 scan platform jammed at Saturn, and the demands of long time exposures at outer planets led to a change of plans such that the entire probe was rotated to make photos at Uranus and Neptune, similar to how New Horizons rotated.

Science payload[edit]

New Horizons carries seven instruments: three optical instruments, two plasma instruments, a dust sensor and a radio science receiver/radiometer. The instruments are to be used to investigate the global geology, surface composition, surface temperature, atmospheric pressure, atmospheric temperature and escape rate of Pluto and its moons. The rated power is 21&#;watts, though not all instruments operate simultaneously.^[63] In addition, New Horizons has an Ultrastable Oscillator subsystem, which may be used to study and test the Pioneer anomaly towards the end of the spacecraft's life.^[64]

Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI)[edit]

The Long-Range Reconnaissance Imager (LORRI) is a long-focal-length imager designed for high resolution and responsivity at visible wavelengths. The instrument is equipped with a × pixel by bits-per-pixel monochromatic CCD imager giving a resolution of 5&#;μrad (~1&#;arcsec).^[65] The CCD is chilled far below freezing by a passive radiator on the antisolar face of the spacecraft. This temperature differential requires insulation, and isolation from the rest of the structure. The &#;mm (&#;in) aperture Ritchey–Chretien mirrors and metering structure are made of silicon carbide, to boost stiffness, reduce weight, and prevent warping at low temperatures. The optical elements sit in a composite light shield, and mount with titanium and fiberglass for thermal isolation. Overall mass is &#;kg (19&#;lb), with the optical tube assembly (OTA) weighing about &#;kg (12&#;lb),^[66] for one of the largest silicon-carbide telescopes flown at the time (now surpassed by Herschel). For viewing on public web sites the bit per pixel LORRI images are converted to 8-bit per pixel JPEG images.^[65] These public images do not contain the full dynamic range of brightness information available from the raw LORRI images files.^[65]

Principal investigator: Andy Cheng, Applied Physics Laboratory, Data: LORRI image search at manicapital.com^[67]

Solar Wind Around Pluto (SWAP)[edit]

SWAP – Solar Wind Around Pluto

Solar Wind Around Pluto (SWAP) is a toroidal electrostatic analyzer and retarding potential analyzer (RPA), that makes up one of the two instruments comprising New Horizons'Plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite (PAM), the other being PEPSSI. SWAP measures particles of up to &#;keV and, because of the tenuous solar wind at Pluto's distance, the instrument is designed with the largest aperture of any such instrument ever flown.^[68]

Principal investigator: David McComas, Southwest Research Institute

Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI)[edit]

Pluto Energetic Particle Spectrometer Science Investigation (PEPSSI) is a time of flightion and electron sensor that makes up one of the two instruments comprising New Horizons' plasma and high-energy particle spectrometer suite (PAM), the other being SWAP. Unlike SWAP, which measures particles of up to &#;keV, PEPSSI goes up to 1&#;MeV.^[68]

Principal investigator: Ralph McNutt Jr., Applied Physics Laboratory

Alice[edit]

Alice is an ultraviolet imaging spectrometer that is one of two photographic instruments comprising New Horizons' Pluto Exploration Remote Sensing Investigation (PERSI); the other being the Ralph telescope. It resolves 1,&#;wavelength bands in the far and extreme ultraviolet (from 50–&#;nm), over 32&#;view fields. Its goal is to determine the composition of Pluto's atmosphere. This Alice instrument is derived from another Alice aboard ESA's Rosetta spacecraft.^[68]

Principal investigator: Alan Stern, Southwest Research Institute

In August , NASA confirmed, based on results by Alice on the New Horizons spacecraft, a "hydrogen wall" at the outer edges of the Solar System that was first detected in by the two Voyager spacecraft.^[23][24]

Ralph telescope[edit]

Ralph—telescope and color camera

The Ralph telescope, 75&#;mm^[69] in aperture, is one of two photographic instruments that make up New Horizons' Pluto Exploration Remote Sensing Investigation (PERSI), with the other being the Alice instrument. Ralph has two separate channels: MVIC (Multispectral Visible Imaging Camera), a visible-light CCD imager with broadband and color channels; and LEISA (Linear Etalon Imaging Spectral Array), a near-infrared imaging spectrometer. LEISA is derived from a similar instrument on the Earth Observing-1 spacecraft. Ralph was named after Alice's husband on The Honeymooners, and was designed after Alice.^[70]

On June 23, , NASA announced that it has renamed the LEISA instrument to the "Lisa Hardaway Infrared Mapping Spectrometer" in honor of Lisa Hardaway, the Ralph program manager at Ball Aerospace, who died in January at age ^[71]

Principal investigator: Alan Stern, Southwest Research Institute

Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter (VBSDC)[edit]

VBSDC—Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter

The Venetia Burney Student Dust Counter (VBSDC), built by students at the University of Colorado Boulder, is operating periodically to make dust measurements.^[72][73] It consists of a detector panel, about &#;mm ×&#;&#;mm (18&#;in ×&#;12&#;in), mounted on the anti-solar face of the spacecraft (the ram direction), and an electronics box within the spacecraft. The detector contains fourteen polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) panels, twelve science and two reference, which generate voltage when impacted. Effective collecting area is &#;m² (&#;sq&#;ft). No dust counter has operated past the orbit of Uranus; models of dust in the outer Solar System, especially the Kuiper belt, are speculative. The VBSDC is always turned on measuring the masses of the interplanetary and interstellar dust particles (in the range of nano- and picograms) as they collide with the PVDF panels mounted on the New Horizons spacecraft. The measured data is expected to greatly contribute to the understanding of the dust spectra of the Solar System. The dust spectra can then be compared with those from observations of other stars, giving new clues as to where Earth-like planets can be found in the universe. The dust counter is named for Venetia Burney, who first suggested the name "Pluto" at the age of A thirteen-minute short film about the VBSDC garnered an Emmy Award for student achievement in ^[74]

Principal investigator: Mihaly Horanyi, University of Colorado Boulder

Radio Science Experiment (REX)[edit]

The Radio Science Experiment (REX) used an ultrastable crystal oscillator (essentially a calibrated crystal in a miniature oven) and some additional electronics to conduct radio science investigations using the communications channels. These are small enough to fit on a single card. Because there are two redundant communications subsystems, there are two, identical REX circuit boards.

Principal investigators: Len Tyler and Ivan Linscott, Stanford University

Journey to Pluto[edit]

Launch[edit]

Launch of New Horizons. The Atlas V rocket on the launchpad (left) and lift off from Cape Canaveral.

On September 24, , the spacecraft arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on board a C Globemaster III for launch preparations.^[75] The launch of New Horizons was originally scheduled for January 11, , but was initially delayed until January 17, , to allow for borescope inspections of the Atlas V's kerosene tank. Further delays related to low cloud ceiling conditions downrange, and high winds and technical difficulties—unrelated to the rocket itself—prevented launch for a further two days.^[76][77]

The probe finally lifted off from Pad 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida, directly south of Space ShuttleLaunch Complex 39, at &#;UTC on January 19, ^[78][79] The Centaur second stage ignited at &#;UTC and burned for 5 minutes 25 seconds. It reignited at &#;UTC and burned for 9 minutes 47 seconds. The ATKStar 48B third stage ignited at &#;UTC and burned for 1 minute 28 seconds.^[80] Combined, these burns successfully sent the probe on a solar-escape trajectory at kilometers per second (58,&#;km/h; 36,&#;mph).^[7]New Horizons took only nine hours to pass the Moon's orbit.^[81] Although there were backup launch opportunities in February and February , only the first twenty-three days of the window permitted the Jupiter flyby. Any launch outside that period would have forced the spacecraft to fly a slower trajectory directly to Pluto, delaying its encounter by five to six years.^[82]

The probe was launched by a Lockheed Martin Atlas V rocket, with a third stage added to increase the heliocentric (escape) speed. This was the first launch of the Atlas V configuration, which uses five solid rocket boosters, and the first Atlas V with a third stage. Previous flights had used zero, two, or three solid boosters, but never five. The vehicle, AV, weighed , kilograms (1,,&#;lb) at lift-off,^[80] and had earlier been slightly damaged when Hurricane Wilma swept across Florida on October 24, One of the solid rocket boosters was hit by a door. The booster was replaced with an identical unit, rather than inspecting and requalifying the original.^[83]

The launch was dedicated to the memory of launch conductor Daniel Sarokon, who was described by space program officials as one of the most influential people in the history of space travel.^[84]

Inner Solar System[edit]

Trajectory corrections[edit]

On January 28 and 30, , mission controllers guided the probe through its first trajectory-correction maneuver (TCM), which was divided into two parts (TCM-1A and TCM-1B). The total velocity change of these two corrections was about 18 meters per second (65&#;km/h; 40&#;mph). TCM-1 was accurate enough to permit the cancellation of TCM-2, the second of three originally scheduled corrections.^[85] On March 9, , controllers performed TCM-3, the last of three scheduled course corrections. The engines burned for 76&#;seconds, adjusting the spacecraft's velocity by about &#;m/s (&#;km/h; &#;mph).^[86] Further trajectory maneuvers were not needed until September 25, (seven months after the Jupiter flyby), when the engines were fired for 15&#;minutes and 37&#;seconds, changing the spacecraft's velocity by &#;m/s (&#;km/h; &#;mph),^[87] followed by another TCM, almost three years later on June 30, , that lasted &#;seconds, when New Horizons had already reached the halfway point (in time traveled) to Pluto.^[88]

In-flight tests and crossing of Mars orbit[edit]

During the week of February 20, , controllers conducted initial in-flight tests of three onboard science instruments, the Alice ultraviolet imaging spectrometer, the PEPSSI plasma-sensor, and the LORRI long-range visible-spectrum camera. No scientific measurements or images were taken, but instrument electronics, and in the case of Alice, some electromechanical systems were shown to be functioning correctly.^[89]

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