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This article documents the chronology and epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in January , the virus which causes the coronavirus disease (COVID) and is responsible for the COVID pandemic. The first human cases of COVID were identified in Wuhan, China, in December

Pandemic chronology

Semi-log plot of coronavirus daily deaths by region: Hubei Province; mainland China excluding Hubei; the rest of the world (ROW); and the world total.^[1][2]

1 January

Animated map of confirmed COVID cases from 12 January to 29 February

Date when first case in each first-level administration was reported.

According to information reported by the South China Morning Post on 13 March , in a retrospective study, Chinese authorities identified people who had been infected before the beginning of ^[3][4][5][6]

According to the Chinese state-sponsored Xinhua News, the Huanan Seafood Market was closed on 1 January for "remediation".^[7] In the Consortium's report of 24 January , it was stated that the Huanan Seafood Market had been closed on 1 January for "cleaning and disinfection. However, the virus could only stay on surfaces for so long so this was useless."^[8]

US CDC Director Dr. Robert Redfield was briefed about the severity of the virus from his Chinese counterparts Dr. George F. Gao when he was on vacation with his family – according to reports, what he heard "rattled him."^[9]

WHO in its Newsroom: Emergencies preparedness, the response said "the causal agent has not yet been identified or confirmed" and has requested further information from the Chinese authorities to assess the risk.^[10]

2 January

On 2 January 41 admitted hospital patients in Wuhan, China, were confirmed to have contracted (laboratory-confirmed) the nCoV (novel coronavirus); 27 (66%) patients had direct exposure to Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market.^[11] All 41 patients were subsequently relocated from the hospital they had originally been diagnosed in to the Jinyintan Hospital in Wuhan, China.^[11] WHO declared that its three concerned levels (China country office, Regional Office for the Western Pacific and headquarters) have been working together to respond to the outbreak.^{[citation needed]}

3 January

Chinese scientists at the National Institute of Viral Disease Control and Prevention (IVDC) ruled out the possibilities for 26 common respiratory pathogens, including influenza A and B virus, parainfluenza virus, adenovirus, respiratory syncytial virus metapneumovirus rhinovirus, enterovirus, and other common respiratory viruses. They determined the genetic sequence of the novel β-genus coronaviruses (naming it 'nCoV') from specimens collected from patients in Wuhan, China, and three distinct strains were established.^[12]

Health authorities in Wuhan reported 44 cases, a big jump from the 27 reported on Tuesday. Eleven of the 44 were seriously ill, the Wuhan Municipal Health Commission said, although there had been no reported deaths to date. The health of the close contacts of the cases was being monitored.^[13]

Dr. Li Wenliang, a Wuhan ophthalmologist, was summoned to the Wuhan Public Security Bureau where he was told to sign an official confession and admonition letter promising to cease spreading false "rumors" regarding the coronavirus. In the letter, he was reprimanded for "making false comments by announcing the confirmation of 7 cases of SARS at the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market" that had "severely disturbed the social order". The letter stated, "We solemnly warn you: If you keep being stubborn, with such impertinence, and continue this illegal activity, you will be brought to justice—is that understood?" Li signed the confession writing: "Yes, I understand."^{[14][citation needed]}

China formally notified US on the outbreak. At a White House briefing in 20 March, Health and Human Services Secretary Alex Azar said officials had been alerted to the initial reports of the virus by discussions between CDC director Robert Redfield and Chinese CDC Director Dr. Gao on 3 Jan.. Mr. Azar also told his chief of staff to make sure that the National Security Council was aware that "this (the outbreak) is a very big deal"^[15][16][17]

4 January

The head of the University of Hong Kong's Centre for Infection, Ho Pak-Leung, warned that the city should implement the strictest possible monitoring system for a mystery new viral pneumonia that infected dozens of people on the mainland, as it was highly possible that the illness was spreading from human to human. The microbiologist also warned that there could be a surge in cases during the upcoming Chinese New Year. Ho said he hoped the mainland would release more details as soon as possible about the patients infected with the disease, such as their medical history, to help experts analyse the illness and to allow for more effective preventive measures to be put in place.^[18]

The Singapore Ministry of Health said on Saturday, 4 January, that it had been notified of the first suspected case of the "mystery Wuhan virus" in Singapore, involving a three-year-old girl from China who had pneumonia and a travel history to the Chinese city of Wuhan.^[19] On 5 January, the Singapore Ministry of Health released a press statement stating that the earlier suspected case was not linked to the pneumonia cluster in Wuhan and was also tested negative for the SARS and MERS-CoV.^[20]

Chinese officials were criticised for failing to disclose any information about the "mysterious virus" that machine translations of official reports suggested may be caused by a new coronavirus.^[13]

The WHO waited for China to release information about the "mysterious new pneumonia virus".^[21] The United Nations agency activated its incident-management system at the country, regional and global level and was standing ready to launch a broader response if it was needed. The WHO's regional office in Manila said in Twitter posts Saturday: "#China has reported to WHO regarding a cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, Hubei Province. The Govt has also met with our country office, and updated @WHO on the situation. Govt actions to control the incident have been instituted and investigations into the cause are ongoing."^[21]

The Wuhan Institute of Virology did not respond to an emailed request for comment on the infectious source.^[22]

5 January

The number of suspected cases reached 59 with seven in a critical condition. All were quarantined and local medical officials commenced the monitoring of of their contacts. At this time, there had been no reported cases of human-to-human transmission or presentations in healthcare workers.^[23][24]

Department of Zoonoses (National Institute of Communicable Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention) submitted complete genome of Wuhan seafood market pneumonia virus isolate Wuhan-Hu-1 (published 12 January ).^[25]

Early investigations into the cause of the pneumonia ruled out seasonal flu, SARS, MERS and bird flu.^[26][27]

6 January

On Monday, 6 January, the Wuhan health authorities announced they continued seeking the cause but had so far ruled out influenza, avian influenza, adenovirus, and coronaviruses SARS and MERS as the respiratory pathogen that had infected 59 people as of 5 January.^[28]

7 January

In a closed meeting of the Central Politburo of the Communist Party of China, Xi Jinping "made requests for the prevention and control work of the coronavirus outbreak" and issued instructions to similar ends. This meeting occurred 13 days before Xi's first public comments on the outbreak on 20 January.^[29]

Scientists of the National Institute of Viral Disease Control and Prevention (IVDC) confirmed the novel coronavirus isolated on 3 January was the pathogenic cause of the viral pneumonia of unknown etiology (VPUE) cluster, and the disease has been designated novel coronavirus-infected pneumonia (NCIP).^[12]

Scientists in China announced the discovery of a new coronavirus.^[30][31]

Since the outburst of social media discussion of the mysterious pneumonia outbreak in Wuhan, China, Chinese authorities censored the hashtag #WuhanSARS and were now investigating anyone who was allegedly spreading misleading information about the outbreak on social media.^[32]

The world continued to wait for China to disclose more information about what had triggered an unexplained pneumonia outbreak in Wuhan, China's tenth-largest city.^[33]

The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) created an "incident management system" and issued a travel notice Monday for travellers to Wuhan, Hubei province, China due to the cluster of cases of pneumonia of an unknown etiology"^[34][35]

According to prof. Mikhail Shchelkanov (FEFU Scientists' Council on 17 March ) he knew sequence of the novel coronavirus genome by 7 January ("we – world scientists' circles").^[36]

8 January

South Korea announced the first possible case of the virus coming from China.^[37] South Korea put a year-old Chinese woman under isolated treatment amid concerns that she had brought back a form of viral pneumonia that had sickened dozens in mainland China and Hong Kong in the previous weeks. The unidentified woman, who worked for a South Korean company near capital Seoul, had experienced cough and fever since returning from a five-day trip to China on 30 December, the KCDC said in a press release. The woman had spent time in Wuhan, China, but had not visited the Huanan Seafood Market.^{[citation needed]}

9 January

The WHO confirmed that the novel coronavirus had been isolated from one person who had been hospitalised.^[38][39] On the same day, the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control posted its first risk assessment.^[40] The WHO also reported that Chinese authorities had acted swiftly,^[38] identifying the novel coronavirus within weeks of the onset of the outbreak, with the total number of positively tested people being ^[41] The first death from the virus occurred in a year-old man who was a regular customer at the market. He had several significant medical conditions, including chronic liver disease, and died from heart failure and pneumonia. The incident was reported in China by the health commission via Chinese state media on 11 January.^{[42][43][44][45]}

Chinese scientists reported on Chinese state broadcaster CCTV that they had found a new "coronavirus in 15 of 57 patients with the illness in the central city of Wuhan, saying it has been preliminarily identified as the pathogen for the outbreak".^[46] The scientists announced that the current 'Wuhan Virus', a coronavirus, appears to not be as lethal as SARS. They reported that the new viral outbreak was first detected in the city of Wuhan on 12 December ^[46] Additionally, a total of 59 people have been identified as contracting the illness, seven patients had been in a critical condition at some stage, and no healthcare workers were reported as having been infected.^[46]

10 January

The gene sequencing data of the isolated nCoV, a virus from the same family as the SARS coronavirus, was posted on manicapital.com by researchers from Fudan University, Shanghai. A further three sequences from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, one from the Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, and one from Jinyintan Hospital in Wuhan were posted to the Global Initiative on Sharing All Influenza Data (GISAID) portal.^{[42][47][48][49]} The same day, Public Health England issued its guidance.^[40]

On 10 January , Li Wenliang, Chinese ophthalmologist and coronavirus whistleblower, started having symptoms of a dry cough. On 12 January , Wenliang started having a fever. He was admitted to the hospital on 14 January His parents also contracted the coronavirus (presumably from Wenliang) and were admitted to the hospital with him. Wenliang tested negative several times for the coronavirus until finally testing positive on 30 January ^[14] He died on 7 February ^[50]

First two patients in Shenzhen, Guangdong, China attend University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital.^[51]

11 January

The first two patients in Shenzhen city transferred into a negative pressure room in Third People's Hospital of Shenzhen City due to matching lab test results, symptoms, and epidemiology and are being listed as suspected cases. The cases were not confirmed at the time, because requirement from the Chinese government at the time was that first case in each city needs to be submitted to provincial CDC, verified by national CDC, and then evaluated and confirmed by a specific diagnostic team in national CDC.^[51]

The first viral genome sequence was shared to GENBANK and manicapital.com by Professor Zhang Yongzhen of the Shanghai Public Health Clinical Centre through the auspices of the Wuhan Institute of Virology, which was before the government's official disclosure of the same to WHO, which occurred on the following day when the National Health Commission released several viral sequences to GISAID.^[52][53]

11–12 January

In China, more than close contacts of the 41 confirmed cases, including more than healthcare workers, had been monitored, with no new cases reported in China since 5 January.^{[27][23][42][54]} The WHO published initial guidance on travel advice, testing in the laboratory and medical investigation.^[42] WHO is saying that "The [Chinese] government reports that there is no clear evidence that the virus passes easily from person to person".^[55]

13 January

The USCDC announced that the genome had been posted on the NIH genetic sequence database, GenBank.^[56] On the same day, Thailand witnessed the first confirmed case of nCoV, the first outside China.^[57] The affected year-old Chinese woman, who is a resident of Wuhan, had not visited the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, but was noted to have been to other markets. She had arrived in Bangkok on 8 January.^[58][59] In response, the WHO urged China to continue searching for the source of the new virus.^[60]

14 January

WHO sent a tweet which said "preliminary investigations conducted by the Chinese authorities have found no clear evidence of human-to-human transmission of the novel coronavirus (nCoV) identified in Wuhan, China".^[61] According to Reuters in Geneva, WHO said there may have been limited human-to-human transmission of a new coronavirus in China within families, and it is possible there could be a wider outbreak.^[62]

On 14 January, The Wuhan Municipal Health Committee published a Q&A regarding the coronavirus, stating: "current investigation hasn't found clear evidence of human to human transmission, however, the possibility of human to human transmission cannot be ruled out".^[63]

On 14 January, two of the 41 confirmed cases in Wuhan were reported to include a married couple, raising the possibility of human-to-human transmission.^[58][64]

On 14 January, Maria Van Kerkhove, acting head of WHO's emerging diseases unit said that there had been limited human-to-human transmission of the coronavirus, mainly small clusters in families, adding that "it is very clear right now that we have no sustained human-to-human transmission"^[65][66][62]

In a confidential government teleconference on 15 January, between Ma Xiaowei, the head of the National Health Commission and the provincial health authorities, the government internally acknowledged the threat of a pandemic due to the reporting of the Thailand viral infection a day earlier and the public health threat that New Year holiday travel presented for the further spread of the virus.^[67]

15 January

A second death occurred in a year-old man in China on 15 January.^[68][69]

The first known travel-related case of novel coronavirus entered the United States: "The patient from Washington with confirmed nCoV infection returned to the United States from Wuhan on January 15, The patient sought care at a medical facility in the state of Washington, where the patient was treated for the illness. Based on the patient’s travel history and symptoms, healthcare professionals suspected this new coronavirus. A clinical specimen was collected and sent to CDC overnight, where laboratory testing yesterday confirmed the diagnosis via CDC’s Real-time Reverse Transcription-Polymerase Chain Reaction (rRT-PCR) test."^[70]

US Embassy in China issued a Health Alert Watch Level 1 for an outbreak of pneumonia in Wuhan, preliminarily identified to be caused by a novel coronavirus.^[71]

16 January

On 16 January, the WHO was alerted by Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare that the first case in Japan, a year-old male Chinese national had tested positive to nCoV during a hospital stay between 10 and 15 January. He had not visited the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, but possibly had close contact with an affected person in Wuhan.^[72][73]

Researchers from the German Center for Infection Research (DZIF) at Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin developed a new laboratory assay to detect the novel coronavirus. The assay protocol has been published by the WHO as a guideline for diagnostic detection for nCoV. The new assay enables suspected cases to be tested quickly.^[74][68]

17 January

On 17 January, Thailand's second confirmed case was reported in a year-old woman who arrived in Bangkok on a flight from Wuhan.^[75][76] The number of laboratory-confirmed cases rose to 45 in China.^[77]

Yang Xiaobo, head of the Assets Supervision and Administration Commission, died of pneumonia caused by the virus on 17 January.^[78]

US CDC dispatched people to three American airports to screen travellers coming from Wuhan, China.^[17]

18 January

After the first 41 laboratory-confirmed cases were identified on 2 January ,^[11] Chinese officials announced no new cases for the next 16 days, then reported 17 additional laboratory-confirmed cases, three of which were in critical condition. This brought the number of laboratory-confirmed cases in China to The patients' ages ranged from 30 to 19 were discharged and eight remain critical.^[79]

On the same day, the Wuhan City government held an annual banquet in the Baibuting community celebrating the Chinese New Year with forty thousand families in attendance despite the officials' knowledge of the spread of the novel coronavirus. They shared meals, plates and ate together.^[80] On 21 January when Wuhan mayor Zhou Xianwang was asked on state television why this banquet was held even after the number of cases had risen to he responded, "The reason why the Baibuting community continued to host the banquet this year was based on the previous judgment that the spread of the epidemic was limited between humans, so there was not enough warning."^[81]

US HHS Secretary Alex Azar spoke to Trump on the phone about the virus, while which Trump interjected to ask when flavoured vaping products would be back on the market.^[16][17]

19 January

On 19 January, the first confirmed cases were reported in China, outside Wuhan, one in the southern province of Guangdong and two in Beijing.^[82] Wuhan reported additional laboratory-confirmed cases, bringing the total number of laboratory-confirmed cases in China to A new death was also reported in Wuhan, bringing the total number of fatalities in China to three.^[83][84]

20 January

On 20 January, after two medical staff were infected in Guangdong, China National Health Commission confirmed that the virus was human-to-human transmissible.^[85] The investigation team from China's National Health Commission confirmed for the first time that the coronavirus can be transmitted between humans.^[86]

Scientists from the China CDC identified three different strains of the nCoV confirming that the original Wuhan coronavirus had mutated into two additional strains.^[87]

Chinese Communist Partygeneral secretary (Paramount leader), Xi Jinping said "people’s lives and health should be given top priority and the spread of the outbreak should be resolutely curbed."^[85]State CouncilpremierLi Keqiang urged decisive and effective efforts to prevent and control the epidemic.^[88] First confirmed case reported in South Korea.^[89] Beijing and Guangdong reported an additional three and thirteen laboratory-confirmed cases, respectively. Shanghai confirms its first case, bringing the total number of laboratory-confirmed cases in China to ^[90][91] At least two people had become infected whilst living hundreds of miles from Wuhan.^[92]

The United States and South Korea each reported their first confirmed case of the coronavirus to the World Health Organization on 20 Jan.^[93][94] US CDC developed its own testing kit after China shared the genetic sequence on 10 Jan and deployed it to detect the first coronavirus case. The testing kit used three small genetic sequences instead of two used by Germany. The test kits were found to be defective because the third sequence, or "probe," gave inconclusive results.^[35]

Five attendees of an as-yet-unnamed private international sales company meeting of attendees, 94 from overseas, held from 20–22 January at the Grand Hyatt Hotel, Singapore were diagnosed with the coronavirus upon returning home: one from Malaysia, two from South Korea and two from Singapore.^[95][96] One of the attendees was from Wuhan, China. It was reported that the company held a buffet for their delegates. These four diagnoses were not reported until 5 February ^[97] The first laboratory-confirmed case in Singapore of an unrelated year-old native of Wuhan was not reported until 23 January ^[98] These cases linked to the meeting were the first evidence that the Wuhan coronavirus had spread through human-to-human contact outside China, which the WHO has said is deeply concerning and could signal evidence of a much larger outbreak.^[97] As of 5 February , the sister of a Malaysian who attended the meeting had been infected and four more local staff in Singapore were confirmed as having virus symptoms.^[97][99]

21 January

A total of cases have now been reported across major cities in China, including Beijing and Shanghai. However, most patients are in Wuhan, the central city of 11&#;million at the heart of the outbreak.^[86]

A report by the MRC Centre for Global Infectious Disease Analysis at Imperial College London suggested there could be more than 1, infections. However, Gabriel Leung, the dean of medicine at the University of Hong Kong, put the figure closer to 1,^[86]

After confirmed diagnoses and 6 deaths, Chinese state media warned lower-level officials not to cover up the spread of a new coronavirus.^[86] Officials declared that anyone who concealed new cases would "be nailed on the pillar of shame for eternity", the political body responsible for law and order said. The outbreak has revived memories of the SARS virus when the local Chinese officials initially withheld information about the SARS epidemic from the public and later vastly under-reported the number of people that had been infected, downplayed the risks and failed to provide timely information that experts say could have saved lives. In its commentary published online on Tuesday, 21 January , the Communist Party's Central Political and Legal Commission talked of China having learned a "painful lesson" from the SARS epidemic and called for the public to be kept informed. Deception, it warned, could "turn a controllable natural disaster into a man-made disaster".^[86]

The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission reported at least 15 medical workers in Wuhan have also been infected with the virus, with one in a critical condition.^[86]

WHO Situation Report 1:^[94] (Please note that the WHO Situation Reports as official reportage stand on their own.)

Confirmed cases were reported in several new locations in China. Zhejiang and Tianjin reported five and two laboratory-confirmed cases, respectively.^[][] Guangdong reported three additional laboratory-confirmed cases.^[] Shanghai and Henan reported an additional four and one laboratory-confirmed cases, respectively.^[] One laboratory-confirmed case was reported in Sichuan, and Chongqing reported five laboratory-confirmed cases.^[][]Shandong, Hunan, and Yunnan all reported one laboratory-confirmed case each.^[][][]Jiangxi reported two laboratory-confirmed cases.^[] The total number of laboratory-confirmed cases in China increased to and the death toll increased to six.^[][][]

New cases were also reported outside of mainland China. Taiwan reported its first laboratory-confirmed case,^[] and the United States reported its first laboratory-confirmed case in the state of Washington, the first in North America.^[][]

China's Wuhan Institute filed to patent the use of Gilead's remdesivir for the treatment of novel coronavirus.^[]

Motion Picture Production Code

The Motion Picture Production Code was the set of industry moral guidelines for the self-censorship of content that was applied to most United States motion pictures released by major studios from to It is also popularly known as the Hays Code, after Will H. Hays, who was the president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA) from to Under Hays' leadership, the MPPDA, later known as the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), adopted the Production Code in and began rigidly enforcing it in mid The Production Code spelled out what was acceptable and what was unacceptable content for motion pictures produced for a public audience in the United States.

From to , the code was closely identified with Joseph Breen, the administrator appointed by Hays to enforce the code in Hollywood. The film industry followed the guidelines set by the code well into the late s, but during this time, the code began to weaken due to the combined impact of television, influence from foreign films, controversial directors (such as Otto Preminger) pushing boundaries, and intervention from the courts, including the Supreme Court.^[1][2] In , after several years of minimal enforcement, the Production Code was replaced by the MPAA film rating system.

Background[edit]

In , after several risqué films and a series of off-screen scandals involving Hollywood stars, the studios enlisted Presbyterian elderWill H. Hays to rehabilitate Hollywood's image. Hollywood in the s was rocked by a number of notorious scandals, such as the murder of William Desmond Taylor and alleged rape of Virginia Rappe by popular movie star Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle, which brought widespread condemnation from religious, civic, and political organizations. Many felt the movie industry had always been morally questionable.^[3]

Political pressure was increasing, with legislators in 37 states introducing almost one hundred movie censorship bills in Faced with the prospect of having to comply with hundreds, and potentially thousands, of inconsistent and easily changed decency laws in order to show their movies, the studios chose self-regulation as the preferable option.

Hays was paid the then-lavish sum of $, a year (equal to $1,, today).^[4][5][6] Hays, Postmaster General under Warren G. Harding and former head of the Republican National Committee,^[7] served for 25 years as president of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America (MPPDA), where he "defended the industry from attacks, recited soothing nostrums, and negotiated treaties to cease hostilities".^[4]

The move mimicked the decision Major League Baseball had made in hiring judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis as League Commissioner the previous year to quell questions about the integrity of baseball in the wake of the World Series gambling scandal; The New York Times even called Hays the "screen Landis".^[8] In , Hays introduced a set of recommendations dubbed "The Formula", which the studios were advised to heed, and asked filmmakers to describe to his office the plots of pictures they were planning on making.^[9]

The Supreme Court had already decided unanimously in in Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio that free speech did not extend to motion pictures,^[10] and while there had been token attempts to clean up the movies before—such as when the studios formed the National Association of the Motion Picture Industry (NAMPI) in —little had come of the efforts.^[11]

New York became the first state to take advantage of the Supreme Court's decision by instituting a censorship board in Virginia followed suit the following year,^[12] with eight individual states having a board by the advent of sound film,^[13][14] but many of these were ineffectual. By the s, the New York stage—a frequent source of subsequent screen material—had topless shows, performances filled with curse words, adult subject matter, and sexually suggestive dialog.^[15]

Early in the sound system conversion process, it became apparent that what was acceptable in New York might not be so in Kansas.^[15] Film-makers were facing the possibility that many states and cities would adopt their own codes of censorship, necessitating a multiplicity of versions of films made for national distribution. Self-censorship was deemed a preferable outcome.

In , Hays suggested to studio executives that they form a committee to discuss film censorship. Irving G. Thalberg of Metro Goldwyn Mayer, Sol Wurtzel of Fox, and E. H. Allen of Paramount responded by collaborating on a list they called the "Don'ts and Be Carefuls", which was based on items that were challenged by local censor boards. This list consisted of eleven subjects best avoided and twenty-six to be handled very carefully.

The list was approved by the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), and Hays created the Studio Relations Committee (SRC) to oversee its implementation;^[16][17] however, there was still no way to enforce tenets.^[8] The controversy surrounding film standards came to a head in ^[18][19]

Pre-Code: "Don'ts" and "Be Carefuls", as proposed in [edit]

In a resolution passed on June 29, , the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America codified a lists of "don'ts" and "be carefuls" into what they colloquially called their "Magna Carta".^[20] Many of these would later become key points in the Code.^[21] Specifically, the MPPDA resolved, "that those things which are included in the following list shall not appear in pictures produced by the members of this Association, irrespective of the manner in which they are treated":^[20]

1. Pointed profanity—by either title or lip—this includes the words God, Lord, Jesus, Christ (unless they be used reverently in connection with proper religious ceremonies), Hell, S.O.B., damn, Gawd, and every other profane and vulgar expression however it may be spelled;
2. Any licentious or suggestive nudity—in fact or in silhouette; and any lecherous or licentious notice thereof by other characters in the picture;
3. The illegal traffic in drugs;
4. Any inference of sex perversion;
5. White slavery;
6. Miscegenation (sex relationships between the white and black races);
7. Sex hygiene and venereal diseases;
8. Scenes of actual childbirth—in fact or in silhouette;
9. Children's sex organs;
10. Ridicule of the clergy;
11. Willful offense to any nation, race or creed; and

BE IT FURTHER RESOLVED, that special care be exercised in the manner in which the following subjects are treated, to the end that vulgarity and suggestiveness may be eliminated and that good taste may be emphasized:

1. The use of the Flag;
2. International Relations (avoid picturizing in an unfavorable light another country's religion, history, institutions, prominent people and citizenry);
3. Arson;
4. The use of firearms;
5. Theft, robbery, safe-cracking, and dynamiting of trains, mines, buildings, et cetera (having in mind the effect which a too-detailed description of these may have upon the moron);
6. Brutality and possible gruesomeness;
7. Technique of committing murder by whatever method;
8. Methods of smuggling;
9. Third-Degree methods;
10. Actual hangings or electrocutions as legal punishment for crime;
11. Sympathy for criminals;
12. Attitude toward public characters and institutions;
13. Sedition;
14. Apparent cruelty to children and animals;
15. Branding of people or animals;
16. The sale of women, or of a woman selling her virtue;
17. Rape or attempted rape;
18. First-night scenes;
19. Man and woman in bed together;
20. Deliberate seduction of girls;
21. The institution of marriage;
22. Surgical operations;
23. The use of drugs;
24. Titles or scenes having to do with law enforcement or law-enforcing officers;
25. Excessive or lustful kissing, particularly when one character or the other is a "heavy".

Creation of the code and its contents[edit]

In , a Catholic layman, Martin Quigley (editor of the prominent trade paper Motion Picture Herald) and the Jesuit priest Father Daniel A. Lord created a code of standards^[22] and submitted it to the studios.^[4][23] Lord was particularly concerned with the effects of sound film on children, whom he considered especially susceptible to their allure.^[22]

In February , several studio heads—including Irving Thalberg of Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM)—met with Lord and Quigley. After some revisions, they agreed to the stipulations of the Code. One of the main motivating factors in adopting the Code was to avoid direct government intervention.^[24] It was the responsibility of the SRC (headed by Colonel Jason S. Joy, a former American Red Cross Executive Secretary^[16][25]) to supervise film production and advise the studios when changes or cuts were required.^[26][27] On March 31, the MPPDA agreed it would abide by the Code.^[28] The production code was intended to put a limitation on films which were distributed to a large audience, making it more difficult to appeal to all individuals in the audiences.^[29]

The code was divided into two parts. The first was a set of "general principles" which prohibited a picture from "lowering the moral standards of those who see it", so as not to wrongly influence a specific audience of views including, women, children, lower-class, and those of “susceptible” minds, called for depictions of the "correct standards of life", and lastly forbade a picture to show any sort of ridicule towards a law or "creating sympathy for its violation".^[30]

The second part was a set of "particular applications", which was an exacting list of items that could not be depicted. Some restrictions, such as the ban on homosexuality or on the use of specific curse words, were never directly mentioned, but were assumed to be understood without clear demarcation.

Homosexuals were de facto included under the proscription of sex perversion.^[31] The depiction of miscegenation (as defined specifically as sexual relationships between black and white races) was forbidden.^[32] It also stated that the notion of an "adults-only policy" would be a dubious, ineffective strategy that would be difficult to enforce;^[33] however, it did allow that "maturer minds may easily understand and accept without harm subject matter in plots which does younger people positive harm".^[34] If children were supervised and the events implied elliptically, the code allowed "the possibility of a cinematically inspired thought crime".^[34]

The code sought not only to determine what could be portrayed on screen, but also to promote traditional values.^[35] Sexual relations outside marriage—which were forbidden to be portrayed as attractive or beautiful—were to be presented in a way that would not arouse passion or make them seem permissible.^[36] Any sexual act considered perverted, including any suggestion of same sex relationships, sex, or romance, was ruled out.^[31]

All criminal action had to be punished, and neither the crime nor the criminal could elicit sympathy from the audience,^[8] or the audience must at least be aware that such behavior is wrong, usually through "compensating moral value".^[30][37] Authority figures had to be treated with respect, and the clergy could not be portrayed as comic characters or villains. Under some circumstances, politicians, police officers, and judges could be villains, as long as it was clear that those individuals portrayed as villains were the exceptions to the rule.^[38]

The entire document was written with Catholic undertones, and stated that art must be handled carefully because it could be "morally evil in its effects", and because its "deep moral significance" was unquestionable.^[33] It was initially decided to keep the Catholic influence on the Code secret.^[39] A recurring theme was "that throughout, the audience feels sure that evil is wrong, and good is right".^[8] The Code also contained an addendum commonly referred to as the Advertising Code, which regulated advertising copy and imagery.^[40]

Enforcement[edit]

Pre-Code Hollywood[edit]

A famous shot from the film, The Great Train Robbery. Scenes where criminals aimed guns at the camera were considered inappropriate by the New York state censor board in the s, and usually removed.^[41]

On February 19, , Variety published the entire content of the Code and predicted that state film censorship boards would soon become obsolete;^[42] however, the men obliged to enforce the code—Jason Joy (head of the Committee until ) and his successor, Dr. James Wingate—were generally unenthusiastic and/or ineffective.^[27][43] The first film the office reviewed, The Blue Angel, which was passed by Joy with no revisions, was considered indecent by a California censor.^[43] Although there were several instances where Joy negotiated cuts from films and there were definite—albeit loose—constraints, a significant amount of lurid material made it to the screen.^[44] Joy had to review films a year with a small staff and little power.^[43] He was more willing to work with the studios, and his creative writing skills led to his hiring at Fox. On the other hand, Wingate struggled to keep up with the flood of scripts coming in, to the point where Warner Bros.' head of production Darryl Zanuck wrote him a letter imploring him to pick up the pace.^[45] In , the Hays office did not have the authority to order studios to remove material from a film, and instead worked by reasoning and sometimes pleading with them.^[46] Complicating matters, the appeals process ultimately put the responsibility for making the final decision in the hands of the studios.^[27]

Doctor Frankenstein's creation; actor Boris Karloff, the film, Frankenstein, in the famous monster make-up. By the time the film's sequel, Bride of Frankenstein, arrived in , enforcement of the Code was in full effect, and the doctor's overt God complex was forbidden.^[47] In the first picture, however, when the creature was born, his mad scientist creator was free to proclaim "Now I know what it feels like to be God!"^[48]

One factor in ignoring the code was the fact that some found such censorship prudish, due to the libertine social attitudes of the s and early s. This was a period in which the Victorian era was sometimes ridiculed as being naïve and backward.^[49] When the Code was announced, the liberal periodical The Nation attacked it.^[42] The publication stated that if crime were never to be presented in a sympathetic light, then taken literally that would mean that "law" and "justice" would become one and the same. Therefore, events such as the Boston Tea Party could not be portrayed. If clergy must always be presented in a positive way, then hypocrisy could not be dealt with either.^[42]The Outlook agreed, and, unlike Variety, The Outlook predicted from the beginning that the Code would be difficult to enforce.^[42] The Great Depression of the s led many studios to seek income by any way possible. Since films containing racy and violent content resulted in high ticket sales, it seemed reasonable to continue producing such films.^[50] Soon, the flouting of the code became an open secret. In , The Hollywood Reporter mocked the code and quoted an anonymous screenwriter saying that "the Hays moral code is not even a joke any more; it's just a memory"; two years later Variety followed suit.^[27]

Breen era[edit]

On June 13, , an amendment to the Code was adopted which established the Production Code Administration (PCA) and required all films released on or after July 1, , to obtain a certificate of approval before being released. The PCA had two offices - one in Hollywood, and the other in New York City. The first film to receive an MPPDA seal of approval was The World Moves On (). For more than thirty years, virtually all motion pictures produced in the United States adhered to the code.^[51] The Production Code was not created or enforced by federal, state, or city government; the Hollywood studios adopted the code in large part in the hopes of avoiding government censorship, preferring self-regulation to government regulation.

Father Daniel A. Lord, a Jesuit, wrote: "Silent smut had been bad. Vocal smut cried to the censors for vengeance." Thomas Doherty, Professor of American studies at Brandeis University, has defined the code as " no mere list of Thou-Shalt-Nots, but a homily that sought to yoke Catholic doctrine to Hollywood formula. The guilty are punished, the virtuous rewarded, the authority of church and state is legitimate, and the bonds of matrimony are sacred."^[51] What resulted has been described as "a Jewish owned business selling Catholic theology to Protestant America".^[52]

In , Joseph I. Breen — a prominent Catholic layman who had worked in public relations — was appointed head of the new Production Code Administration (PCA). Under Breen's leadership of the PCA, which lasted until his retirement in , enforcement of the Production Code became notoriously rigid. (Even cartoon sex symbol Betty Boop had to change from being a flapper and began to wear an old-fashioned housewife's skirt.) Breen's power to change scripts and scenes angered many writers, directors, and Hollywood moguls. Breen influenced the production of Casablanca, objecting to any explicit reference to Rick and Ilsa having slept together in Paris and to the film mentioning that Captain Renault extorted sexual favors from his supplicants; however, both remained strongly implied in the finished version.^[53] Adherence to the Code also ruled out any possibility of the film ending with Rick and Ilsa consummating their adulterous love, making inevitable the ending with Rick's noble renunciation, one of Casablanca's most famous scenes.^[54]

The first major instance of censorship under the Production Code involved the film Tarzan and His Mate, in which brief nude scenes involving a body double for actress Maureen O'Sullivan were edited out of the master negative of the film.^[55] Another famous case of enforcement involved the westernThe Outlaw, produced by Howard Hughes. The Outlaw was denied a certificate of approval and kept out of theaters for years, because the film's advertising focused particular attention on Jane Russell's breasts. Hughes eventually persuaded Breen that the breasts did not violate the code, and the film could be shown.^[56]

The PCA also engaged in political censorship. When Warner Bros. wanted to make a film about Nazi concentration camps, the production office forbade it—citing the above-mentioned prohibition on depicting "in an unfavorable light" another country's "institutions [and] prominent people"—with threats to take the matter to the federal government if the studio went ahead.^[when?][57] This policy prevented a number of anti-Nazi films being produced. In , the FBI unearthed and prosecuted a Nazi spy ring, subsequently allowing Warner to produce Confessions of a Nazi Spy,^[58] with the Three Stooges' short subject You Nazty Spy! (January ) being the first Hollywood film of any sort to openly spoof the Third Reich's leadership.^[59]

Some films produced outside the mainstream studio system flouted the code. One example is Child Bride (), which featured a nude scene involving a twelve-year-old child actress (Shirley Mills). The Code began to weaken in the late s, when the formerly taboo subjects of rape and miscegenation were allowed in Johnny Belinda () and Pinky (), respectively.^{[citation needed]} In , the MPAA revised the code to make it more rigid; the revisions spelled out more words and subjects that were prohibited. In , Breen retired, largely due to ill health, and Geoffrey Shurlock was appointed as his successor.

Some of Hollywood’s creative class managed to find positives in the Code’s limitations. Director Edward Dmytryk later said that the Code "had a very good effect because it made us think. If we wanted to get something across that was censorable… we had to do it deviously. We had to be clever. And it usually turned out to be much better than if we had done it straight."^[60]

Decline of the Production Code[edit]

Hollywood continued to work within the confines of the Production Code throughout the s, but during this time, the movie industry was faced with very serious competitive threats. The first threat came from a new technology, television, which did not require Americans to leave their house to watch moving pictures. Hollywood needed to offer the public something it could not get on television, which itself was under an even more restrictive censorship code. In addition to the threat of television, there was also increasing competition from foreign films, such as Vittorio De Sica's Bicycle Thieves (), the Swedish film One Summer of Happiness (), and Ingmar Bergman's Summer with Monika (). Vertical integration in the movie industry had been found to violate anti-trust laws, and studios had been forced to give up ownership of theaters by the Supreme Court in United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. (). The studios had no way to keep foreign films out, and foreign films were not bound by the Production Code. Some British films — Victim (), A Taste of Honey (), and The Leather Boys () — challenged traditional gender roles, and openly confronted the prejudices against homosexuals, all in clear violation of the Hollywood Production Code.

In , in the case of Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously overruled its decision (Mutual Film Corporation v. Industrial Commission of Ohio) and held that motion pictures were entitled to First Amendment protection, so that the New York State Board of Regents could not ban The Miracle, a short film that was one half of L'Amore (), an anthology film directed by Roberto Rossellini. Film distributor Joseph Burstyn released the film in the U.S. in , and the case became known as the "Miracle Decision" due to its connection to Rossellini's film. That reduced the threat of government regulation, which had formerly been cited as justification for the Production Code, and the PCA's powers over the Hollywood industry were greatly reduced.^[2] By the s, American culture also began to change. A boycott by the National Legion of Decency no longer guaranteed a film's commercial failure, and several aspects of the code had slowly lost their taboo. In , areas of the code were re-written to accept subjects such as miscegenation, adultery, and prostitution. For example, the re-make of a pre-Code film dealing with prostitution, Anna Christie, was cancelled by MGM twice, in and in , as the character of Anna was not allowed to be portrayed as a prostitute. By , such subject matter was acceptable, and the original film was given a seal of approval.^[61]

Some directors found ways to get around the Code guidelines; an example of this was in Alfred Hitchcock's film, Notorious, where he worked around the rule of three-second-kissing by having the two actors break off every three seconds. The whole sequence lasts two and a half minutes.^[1]

By the late s, increasingly explicit films began to appear, such as Anatomy of a Murder (), Suddenly, Last Summer (), Psycho (), and The Dark at the Top of the Stairs (). The MPAA reluctantly granted the seal of approval for these films, although not until certain cuts were made. Due to its themes, Billy Wilder's Some Like It Hot () was not granted a certificate of approval, but it still became a box office smash, and, as a result, it further weakened the authority of the Code.^[62]

At the forefront of contesting the Code was director Otto Preminger, whose films violated the Code repeatedly in the s. His film The Moon Is Blue, about a young woman who tries to play two suitors off against each other by claiming that she plans to keep her virginity until marriage, was released without a certificate of approval. He later made The Man with the Golden Arm (), which portrayed the prohibited subject of drug abuse, and Anatomy of a Murder (), which dealt with murder and rape. Like Some Like It Hot, Preminger's films were direct assaults on the authority of the Production Code, and their success hastened its abandonment.^[63] In the early s, films began to deal with adult subjects and sexual matters that had not been seen in Hollywood films since the early s. The MPAA reluctantly granted the seal of approval for these films, although again not until certain cuts were made.^[64]

In , the Holocaust film The Pawnbroker, directed by Sidney Lumet and starring Rod Steiger, was initially rejected because of two scenes in which the actresses Linda Geiser and Thelma Oliver fully expose their breasts, as well as due to a sex scene between Oliver and Jaime Sánchez described as "unacceptably sex suggestive and lustful". Despite the rejection, the film's producers arranged for Allied Artists to release the film without the Production Code seal, with the New York censors licensing the film without the cuts demanded by Code administrators. The producers appealed the rejection to the Motion Picture Association of America. On a vote, the MPAA granted the film an exception, conditional on "reduction in the length of the scenes which the Production Code Administration found unapprovable". The requested reductions of nudity were minimal; the outcome was viewed in the media as a victory for the film's producers.^[65]

The Pawnbroker was the first film featuring bare breasts to receive Production Code approval. The exception to the code was granted as a "special and unique case" and was described by The New York Times at the time as "an unprecedented move that will not, however, set a precedent". In Pictures at a Revolution, a study of films during that era, Mark Harris wrote that the MPAA approval was "the first of a series of injuries to the Production Code that would prove fatal within three years".^[66]

In , Warner Bros. released Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?, the first film to feature the "Suggested for Mature Audiences" (SMA) label. When Jack Valenti became President of the MPAA in , he was faced with censoring the film's explicit language. Valenti negotiated a compromise: the word "screw" was removed, but other language remained, including the phrase "hump the hostess". The film received Production Code approval despite the previously prohibited language.^[30]

That same year, the British-produced, American-financed film Blowup was denied Production Code approval. MGM released it anyway, the first instance of an MPAA member company distributing a film that did not have an approval certificate. That same year, the original and lengthy code was replaced by a list of eleven points. The points outlined that the boundaries of the new code would be current community standards and good taste. Any film containing content deemed suitable for older audiences would feature the label SMA in its advertising. With the creation of this new label, the MPAA unofficially began classifying films.^[30]

Production Code abandoned[edit]

By the late s, enforcement had become impossible and the Production Code was abandoned entirely. The MPAA began working on a rating system, under which film restrictions would lessen. The MPAA film rating system went into effect on November 1, , with the four rating symbols: G means suggested for general exhibition (persons of all ages admitted), M means suggested for mature audiences (some material may not be suitable for children under 12), R means suggested as restricted (children under 16 must be accompanied by an adult), and X means suggested as extremely graphic (persons aged 18 or over will only be admitted). By the end of , Geoffrey Shurlock stepped down from his post.^[30][67]

In , the Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow), directed by Vilgot Sjöman, was initially banned in the U.S. for its frank depiction of sexuality; however, this was overturned by the Supreme Court. In , because of confusion over the meaning of "mature audiences", the M rating was changed to GP meaning "for general exhibition, but parental guidance is suggested". and then in to the current PG, for "parental guidance suggested". In , in response to public complaints regarding the severity of horror elements in PG-rated titles such as Gremlins and Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom, the PG rating was created as a middle tier between PG and R. In , the X rating was replaced by NC (under 17 not admitted), partly because of the stigma associated with the X rating, and partly because the X rating was not trademarked by the MPAA; pornographic bookstores and theaters were using their own X, XX, and XXX symbols to market products.^[68]

As the American Humane Association's Hollywood office depended on the Hays Office for the right to monitor sets, the closure of the Hays Office in corresponded with an increase in animal cruelty on movie sets. According to a writer for Turner Classic Movies, the association's access did not return to Hays-era standards until ^[69]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

Sources[edit]

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